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GNDU Queson Paper - 2021
Bachelor of Computer Applicaon (BCA) 5st Semester
OPERATING SYSTEM
Paper-III
Time Allowed – 3 Hours Maximum Marks-75
Note :- Aempt FIVE Queson in all, selecng at least ONE queson from each secon . The FIFTH
Queson may be aempted from any Secon . All Quesons carry equal marks .
SECTION-A
1.What is an operang system ? How does a me sharing system works.
2.What are the states of a process ? How are the threads handled.
SECTION-B
3. What are semaphores ? Explain how to use them.
4. Explain the segmentaon briey.
SECTION-C
5. Explain how do the page replacement algorithm work.
6. What is disk scheduling ? Explain.
SECTION-D
7. What is meant by deadlocks? How are the handled ?
8. Describe deadlock prevenon and avoidance.
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GNDU Answer Paper – 2021
Bachelor of Computer Applicaon (BCA) 5st Semester
OPERATING SYSTEM
SECTION-A
1. What is an operang system ? How does a me sharing system works.
Ans: An operang system (OS) is a soware that manages computer hardware and soware
resources and provides common services for computer programs. The operang system is an
essenal component of the system soware in a computer system. Applicaon programs
usually require an operang system to funcon.
A me-sharing system is a type of operang system that allows mulple users to access and
use the same computer system simultaneously. This is done by dividing the CPU me into
small slices, called me slices or quantum. Each user is allocated a me slice during which
they can execute their tasks. The operang system then switches rapidly between users,
giving the illusion of parallel execuon.
Here is a diagram that illustrates how a me-sharing system works:
[Diagram of a me-sharing system]
The me-sharing system maintains a queue of users or processes that are waing to use the
CPU. When a user's me slice expires, the operang system saves the user's state and loads
the next user from the queue. The operang system then restores the new user's state and
allows them to begin execung their tasks.
Time-sharing systems use a variety of scheduling algorithms to determine which user should
be allocated the CPU next. Some common scheduling algorithms include:
• Round-robin scheduling: Each user is allocated a me slice in a round-robin fashion.
This means that each user gets an equal amount of CPU me, regardless of their
priority.
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• Priority-based scheduling: Users are assigned priories based on their importance.
Users with higher priories are allocated more CPU me.
Time-sharing systems oer a number of advantages over tradional operang systems,
including:
• Improved resource ulizaon: Time-sharing systems allow mulple users to share
the same computer system, which improves resource ulizaon.
• Reduced response me: Time-sharing systems give each user the illusion of having
their own computer system, which reduces response me.
• Increased exibility: Time-sharing systems allow users to interact with their
computer systems in a more exible way. For example, users can switch between
tasks at any me and can run mulple tasks simultaneously.
Time-sharing systems are used in a variety of applicaons, including:
• Interacve compung: Time-sharing systems are ideal for interacve compung
applicaons, such as web browsing, email, and word processing.
• Scienc compung: Time-sharing systems are also used for scienc compung
applicaons, such as weather forecasng and climate modeling.
• Engineering: Time-sharing systems are used by engineers to design and simulate
products and systems.
Here is an example of how a me-sharing system might be used:
Suppose there are three users, Alice, Bob, and Carol, who are all using a me-sharing
system. Each user has a dierent program running on their computer. Alice is browsing the
web, Bob is wring an email, and Carol is working on a spreadsheet.
The me-sharing system will allocate each user a me slice. For example, each user might be
allocated a me slice of 100 milliseconds. When Alice's me slice expires, the operang
system will save her state and load Bob's state. The operang system will then restore Bob's
state and allow him to connue wring his email.
Aer Bob's me slice expires, the operang system will save his state and load Carol's state.
The operang system will then restore Carol's state and allow her to connue working on
her spreadsheet.
This process will connue unl all three users have completed their tasks.
Time-sharing systems are a complex topic, but I hope this explanaon has given you a basic
understanding of how they work.
2.What are the states of a process ? How are the threads handled.
Ans: States of a process:
A process can be in one of the following states:
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• New: The process has been created but has not yet been loaded into memory.
• Ready: The process is in memory and ready to be executed by the CPU.
• Running: The process is currently being executed by the CPU.
• Waing: The process is waing for some resource, such as I/O or CPU me.
• Terminated: The process has nished execung and has been removed from
memory.
Diagram of process states:
New
|
Ready
|
Running
|
Waing
|
Terminated
Threads:
A thread is a lightweight process that shares the same address space and resources as the
process that created it. Threads can be executed concurrently, which means that mulple
threads can be running at the same me.
How threads are handled:
Threads are handled by the operang system in a similar way to processes. The operang
system maintains a ready queue for threads, and threads are scheduled to run on the CPU.
However, threads are lighter weight than processes, and the operang system can switch
between threads more quickly than it can switch between processes.
Diagram of how threads are handled:
New
|
Ready
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|
Running
|
Waing
|
Terminated
/ \
/ \
Thread 1 Thread 2
Benets of using threads:
There are a number of benets to using threads, including:
• Improved performance: Threads can improve the performance of applicaons by
allowing mulple tasks to be executed concurrently.
• Increased responsiveness: Threads can make applicaons more responsive by
allowing users to switch between tasks without having to wait for one task to nish
before another task can start.
• Simplied programming: Threads can simplify the programming of complex
applicaons by allowing dierent parts of the applicaon to be executed
concurrently.
Examples of how threads are used:
Threads are used in a variety of applicaons, including:
• Web browsers: Web browsers use threads to download mulple web pages
simultaneously.
• Email clients: Email clients use threads to check for new email messages, send email
messages, and display email messages.
• Word processors: Word processors use threads to format text, spell check text, and
save documents.
Threads are a powerful tool that can be used to improve the performance, responsiveness,
and scalability of applicaons.
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SECTION- B
1. What are semaphores ? Explain how to use them.
Ans: Semaphores are a synchronizaon primive that can be used to control access to
shared resources by mulple processes. They are a type of variable that can be used to
count the number of resources available. When a process needs to access a resource, it
must rst acquire the semaphore. If the semaphore is available, the process can acquire it
and use the resource. If the semaphore is not available, the process must wait unl the
semaphore is available before it can access the resource.
Semaphores are typically used to implement crical secons, which are regions of code that
must be executed by only one process at a me. For example, a crical secon might be
code that accesses a shared database. Semaphores can also be used to implement
synchronizaon between processes, such as when two processes need to exchange data.
How to use semaphores:
To use semaphores, you must rst create a semaphore variable. The semaphore variable
must be inialized to the number of resources available. For example, if you have a
semaphore that controls access to a printer, you would inialize the semaphore variable to
1, since there is only one printer.
Once you have created a semaphore variable, you can use it to control access to a shared
resource by using the following two operaons:
• P() operaon: This operaon decrements the value of the semaphore variable. If the
semaphore variable is already 0, the P() operaon will block unl the semaphore
variable is greater than 0.
• V() operaon: This operaon increments the value of the semaphore variable.
Example:
The following code shows how to use a semaphore to control access to a shared printer:
// Create a semaphore variable to control access to the printer.
semaphore printer_semaphore = 1;
// Process 1 needs to print a document.
P(printer_semaphore);
// Print the document.
V(printer_semaphore);
// Process 2 needs to print a document.
P(printer_semaphore);
// Print the document.
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V(printer_semaphore);
In this example, Process 1 will acquire the semaphore before it prints its document. This
ensures that only one process can be prinng at a me. Once Process 1 has nished prinng,
it will release the semaphore so that Process 2 can acquire it and print its document.
Semaphores are a powerful tool for synchronizing concurrent processes. However, they can
be dicult to use correctly. It is important to carefully design your program when using
semaphores to avoid race condions and other problems.
2. . Explain the segmentaon briey.
Ans: Segmentaon is a memory management technique that divides a process's address
space into variable-sized porons called segments. Each segment can contain a dierent
type of data, such as code, data, or a stack. The operang system maintains a segment table
for each process, which maps each segment to a physical memory locaon.
Segmentaon has a number of advantages over other memory management techniques,
such as paging:
• Flexibility: Segments can be of any size, which allows for more ecient memory
ulizaon.
• Modularity: Segments can be designed to correspond to logical units of a program,
such as a funcon or a data structure. This can make the program easier to
understand and maintain.
• Protecon: The operang system can use segmentaon to protect dierent segments
of a process's memory from each other. This can help to improve the security and
stability of the system.
Segmentaon is typically implemented in hardware using a memory management unit
(MMU). The MMU translates logical addresses to physical addresses by using the segment
table.
Example:
The following diagram shows a simple example of segmentaon:
Process address space
|------------------------|
| Code segment |
|------------------------|
| Data segment |
|------------------------|
| Stack segment |
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|------------------------|
The code segment contains the program's instrucons, the data segment contains the
program's data, and the stack segment is used for funcon calls and other purposes.
How to use segmentaon:
To use segmentaon, you must rst create a segment table for your process. The segment
table must specify the base address and size of each segment. Once you have created the
segment table, you can load it into the MMU.
Once the segment table is loaded, the MMU will automacally translate logical addresses to
physical addresses. For example, if a program tries to access a locaon in the code segment,
the MMU will use the segment table to translate the logical address to a physical address in
physical memory.
Segmentaon is a powerful memory management technique that can be used to improve
the eciency, exibility, and security of operang systems. However, it is important to note
that segmentaon can be complex to implement and manage.
Addional benets of segmentaon:
• Memory sharing: Segmentaon can be used to share memory between processes.
This can be useful for inter-process communicaon or for sharing code libraries.
• Virtual memory: Segmentaon can be used to implement virtual memory. Virtual
memory allows the operang system to allocate more memory to a process than is
physically available. This is done by storing some of the process's memory on disk.
When the process needs to access memory that is stored on disk, the operang
system will swap it into physical memory.
Segmentaon in other areas of computer science:
Segmentaon is also used in other areas of computer science, such as image processing and
natural language processing. In image processing, segmentaon is used to divide an image
into dierent regions, such as foreground and background. In natural language processing,
segmentaon is used to divide text into dierent parts, such as words and sentences.
Conclusion:
Segmentaon is a powerful and versale technique that can be used to improve the
eciency, exibility, and security of operang systems and other soware applicaons.
SECTION-C
5. Explain how do the page replacement algorithm work.
Ans: A page replacement algorithm is a technique used by operang systems to manage
memory when there is not enough physical memory to store all of the pages of a process.
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When a page is needed and there is no free physical memory, the operang system must
choose a page to evict from memory. This process is known as page replacement.
There are many dierent page replacement algorithms, but they all work in a similar way.
First, the operang system maintains a list of all of the pages in memory. This list is called a
page table. When a page is needed, the operang system checks the page table to see if the
page is in memory. If the page is in memory, the operang system simply accesses the page.
If the page is not in memory, the operang system must evict a page from memory to make
room for the new page.
The operang system chooses a page to evict using the page replacement algorithm. The
page replacement algorithm takes into account various factors, such as how recently the
page was used and how likely the page is to be used in the future. The goal of the page
replacement algorithm is to minimize the number of page faults, which occur when the
operang system must evict a page from memory that is sll needed.
Here is a simple example of how a page replacement algorithm works:
Assume that a process has three pages, A, B, and C. The operang system has two frames of
physical memory. The operang system loads pages A and B into memory.
The process then accesses page C. The operang system checks the page table and sees that
page C is not in memory. The operang system must evict a page from memory to make
room for page C.
The operang system uses the page replacement algorithm to choose a page to evict. The
page replacement algorithm chooses to evict page B. The operang system then loads page
C into memory.
The process then accesses page B. The operang system checks the page table and sees that
page B is not in memory. The operang system must evict a page from memory to make
room for page B.
The operang system uses the page replacement algorithm to choose a page to evict. The
page replacement algorithm chooses to evict page C. The operang system then loads page
B into memory.
This process connues, with the operang system evicng pages from memory as needed to
make room for new pages. The goal of the page replacement algorithm is to minimize the
number of page faults, which occur when the operang system must evict a page from
memory that is sll needed.
There are many dierent page replacement algorithms, each with its own advantages and
disadvantages. Some common page replacement algorithms include:
• First-in-rst-out (FIFO): This algorithm evicts the page that has been in memory the
longest.
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• Least recently used (LRU): This algorithm evicts the page that has been used the
least recently.
• Most recently used (MRU): This algorithm evicts the page that has been used the
most recently.
• Not frequently used (NFU): This algorithm evicts the page that has been used the
least frequently.
• Opmal: This algorithm always evicts the page that will not be used for the longest
period of me.
The choice of page replacement algorithm depends on a number of factors, such as the type
of system and the applicaons that are running on the system.
6. What is disk scheduling ? Explain.
Ans: Disk scheduling is the process of determining the order in which disk access requests
are serviced. The goal of disk scheduling is to minimize the average seek me, which is the
me it takes for the disk head to move to the desired locaon on the disk.
There are many dierent disk scheduling algorithms, each with its own advantages and
disadvantages. Some common disk scheduling algorithms include:
• First-come-rst-served (FCFS): This algorithm services requests in the order in which
they are received.
• Shortest seek me rst (SSTF): This algorithm services the request with the shortest
seek me rst.
• Scan: This algorithm moves the disk head in one direcon, servicing requests along
the way, unl it reaches the end of the disk. It then reverses direcon and services
requests along the way back to the beginning.
• C-Scan (circular scan): This algorithm is similar to the scan algorithm, but it does not
reverse direcon at the end of the disk. Instead, it wraps around to the beginning
and connues servicing requests.
• Look: This algorithm is similar to the scan algorithm, but it only services requests in
the direcon that the disk head is moving.
• C-Look (circular look): This algorithm is similar to the look algorithm, but it does not
reverse direcon at the end of the disk. Instead, it wraps around to the beginning
and connues servicing requests.
The choice of disk scheduling algorithm depends on a number of factors, such as the type of
system and the applicaons that are running on the system.
Here are some of the benets of using a disk scheduling algorithm:
• Improved performance: By reducing the average seek me, disk scheduling
algorithms can improve the overall performance of a system.
• Increased eciency: Disk scheduling algorithms can help to improve the eciency of
disk usage by servicing requests in a more ecient order.
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• Reduced waing me: Disk scheduling algorithms can help to reduce the waing
me for disk requests by servicing requests in a way that minimizes the amount of
me that the disk head must spend moving.
Overall, disk scheduling algorithms are an important part of disk management in operang
systems. By carefully choosing the right disk scheduling algorithm, system administrators can
improve the performance, eciency, and fairness of their systems.
SECTION-D
7. What is meant by deadlocks? How are the handled ?
Ans: A deadlock is a situaon where a set of processes are blocked because each process is
holding a resource and waing for another resource acquired by some other process. For
example, consider two processes, P1 and P2. P1 is holding a lock on resource R1 and is
waing for a lock on resource R2. P2 is holding a lock on resource R2 and is waing for a lock
on resource R1. Neither process can connue unl the other releases the resource it is
holding.
Deadlocks can occur in a variety of systems, including operang systems, databases, and
distributed systems. They can cause serious problems, such as system crashes and data loss.
There are four necessary condions for a deadlock to occur:
• Mutual exclusion: There must be at least one resource that is held by one process
and is requested by at least one other process.
• Hold and wait: A process must be holding at least one resource and waing for at
least one other resource.
• No preempon: Resources cannot be forcibly taken away from a process.
• Circular wait: There must be a circular chain of two or more processes, each of which
is waing for a resource held by the next process in the chain.
If all four of these condions are met, a deadlock can occur.
There are a number of ways to handle deadlocks, including:
• Deadlock prevenon: This involves prevenng one or more of the four necessary
condions for a deadlock from occurring. For example, preempon can be used to
prevent hold and wait.
• Deadlock avoidance: This involves using algorithms to avoid situaons where a
deadlock could occur. For example, a banker's algorithm can be used to ensure that
there are enough resources available to sasfy all requests.
• Deadlock detecon and recovery: This involves detecng deadlocks when they occur
and then taking steps to recover. For example, a deadlock detecon algorithm can be
used to idenfy the processes involved in a deadlock. Once the deadlocked processes
have been idened, they can be terminated or their resources can be preempted.
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Deadlock prevenon is the most desirable way to handle deadlocks, but it can be dicult to
implement. Deadlock avoidance is less desirable, but it is easier to implement. Deadlock
detecon and recovery is the least desirable opon, but it is the simplest to implement.
The best way to handle deadlocks depends on the specic system and the applicaons that
are running on the system.
Here are some addional details about deadlock prevenon and avoidance:
Deadlock prevenon:
• Resource ordering: This involves assigning a paral order to the resources in the
system. Processes can only request resources in the order specied by the paral
order. For example, if resource R1 must be acquired before resource R2, then R1
would be placed before R2 in the paral order.
• Claim-hold-wait: This involves requiring processes to claim all of the resources they
will need before they can start execung. The operang system will then allocate the
resources to the process if they are available. Otherwise, the process will be blocked
unl the resources become available.
Deadlock avoidance:
• Banker's algorithm: This algorithm maintains a matrix of the resources held by each
process and the resources requested by each process. The algorithm also tracks the
number of resources available. The algorithm works by granng requests from
processes only if it is safe to do so, meaning that all processes will be able to
complete their execuons.
Deadlock detecon and recovery is typically implemented using a deadlock detecon
algorithm. Deadlock detecon algorithms work by searching the system for the four
necessary condions for a deadlock. If a deadlock is detected, the operang system can then
take steps to recover, such as terminang one or more of the deadlocked processes or
preempng their resources.
Deadlocks are a serious problem that can occur in a variety of systems. By understanding the
causes and prevenon of deadlocks, system administrators can minimize the risk of
deadlocks occurring in their systems.
8. Describe deadlock prevenon and avoidance.
Ans: Understanding Deadlock: Deadlock is a scenario in a computer system where two or
more processes are unable to proceed because each is waing for the other to release a
resource. In simpler terms, it's like a trac jam where cars are stuck because each one is
waing for another to move. Deadlocks can signicantly aect the performance and
eciency of a system.
Resource Allocaon: To comprehend deadlock prevenon, it's essenal to understand how
processes in a computer system interact with resources. Processes oen request resources
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like memory, les, or even access to a printer. When a process requests a resource, it may
enter a waing state if the resource is currently being used by another process. The key to
avoiding deadlocks lies in managing these resource requests intelligently.
Four Necessary Condions for Deadlock: To prevent deadlocks, we need to understand the
condions that must be present for a deadlock to occur. These condions are oen referred
to as the "Four Necessary Condions for Deadlock." They are:
1. Mutual Exclusion:
Resources, such as a printer or a secon of memory, cannot be simultaneously used by
mulple processes. Only one process can have exclusive access to a resource at any given
me.
2. Hold and Wait:
A process holding at least one resource is waing to acquire addional resources held by
other processes.
3. No Preempon:
Resources cannot be forcibly taken away from a process; they must be released voluntarily
by the process holding them.
4. Circular Wait:
A circular chain of two or more processes exists, where each process is waing for a
resource held by the next process in the chain.
Deadlock Prevenon Strategies: Now, let's explore some simple strategies to prevent
deadlocks:
1. Lock Ordering:
Assign a unique number to each resource in the system. Processes are then required to
request resources in ascending order. This ensures a consistent and predictable order in
which resources are allocated, prevenng circular wait.
2. Hold and Wait Prevenon:
A process must request and be allocated all its required resources before it begins execuon.
This eliminates the possibility of a process holding some resources and waing for others.
3. No Preempon:
If a process requests a resource that is currently held by another process, the operang
system can force the release of the resource from the holding process. However, this
approach is not always feasible or praccal, as it may result in loss of data or inconsistent
system state.
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4. Resource Allocaon Graph (RAG):
Ulize a graphical representaon of resource allocaon called a Resource Allocaon Graph.
This graph helps in idenfying and prevenng circular waits by analyzing the relaonships
between processes and resources.
5. Resource Allocaon Graph (RAG) in Acon:
Consider a system with processes P1, P2, and P3, and resources R1, R2, and R3. If P1 is
holding R1 and waing for R2, P2 is holding R2 and waing for R3, and P3 is holding R3 and
waing for R1, a circular wait is formed. By using a Resource Allocaon Graph, this scenario
becomes visually apparent, allowing the system to take prevenve measures.
Benets of Deadlock Prevenon:
Increased System Reliability: Prevenng deadlocks ensures that processes can complete
their tasks without geng stuck, leading to a more reliable and responsive system.
1. Enhanced Performance: Systems free from deadlocks can operate at their opmal
capacity, delivering beer performance and faster response mes.
2. Improved User Experience: Users are less likely to experience delays or system
freezes, resulng in a smoother and more sasfying compung experience.
3. Challenges in Deadlock Prevenon: Despite the benets, implemenng deadlock
prevenon strategies comes with challenges:
4. Resource Ulizaon: Some prevenon strategies may lead to underulizaon of
resources. For instance, the hold and wait prevenon strategy may result in
processes holding resources they do not immediately need, impacng overall
resource eciency.
5. Complexity: Managing resource allocaon based on specic orders or enforcing strict
rules can add complexity to the system. Striking a balance between prevenng
deadlocks and maintaining system simplicity is crucial.
6. Dynamic Environments: Deadlock prevenon strategies may face challenges in
dynamically changing environments where the number and type of resources
needed by processes can vary.
Conclusion: In conclusion, prevenng deadlocks involves understanding and addressing the
four necessary condions for deadlock occurrence. Strategies such as lock ordering, hold
and wait prevenon, and the use of Resource Allocaon Graphs can be eecve in
migang the risk of deadlocks. While these strategies enhance system reliability and
performance, they also pose challenges related to resource ulizaon, system complexity,
and adaptability to dynamic environments. Striking the right balance between prevenon
measures and maintaining system eciency is essenal for creang robust and responsive
compung environments.
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Deadlock Avoidance
Deadlock avoidance is a technique used in computer science and operang systems to
prevent the occurrence of deadlocks, which are situaons where two or more processes are
unable to proceed because each is waing for the other to release a resource. In simpler
terms, a deadlock is like a trac jam where cars are stuck because each is waing for the
other to move, and nobody can proceed.
To understand deadlock avoidance, let's break it down into simpler concepts:
1. Resources and Processes:
1. Imagine a computer system as a busy kitchen where mulple chefs (processes) are
preparing dierent dishes.
2. The ingredients, utensils, and cooking staons are resources that the chefs need.
2. Resource Types:
1. In the kitchen, resources can be categorized as stovetops, cung boards, knives, and
ingredients.
2. Similarly, in a computer system, resources can be printers, memory, CPU me, or any
other enty that processes need.
3. Resource Allocaon:
1. Chefs request and receive resources in the kitchen to cook their dishes.
2. Similarly, computer processes request and are allocated resources to perform tasks.
4. Deadlock Scenario:
1. Now, imagine Chef A has the cung board and needs the knife held by Chef B, while
Chef B has the knife and needs the cung board held by Chef A.
2. Neither can proceed because they are both waing for the other's resource, leading
to a deadlock.
5. Avoiding Deadlocks:
1. In the kitchen, a supervisor can prevent deadlocks by ensuring chefs request
resources in a specic order (e.g., rst cung board, then knife).
2. In a computer system, deadlock avoidance involves carefully managing resource
requests to prevent circular wait, one of the condions that can lead to deadlocks.
6. Banker's Algorithm:
1. One approach to deadlock avoidance is using the Banker's algorithm, which ensures
that resources are allocated in a way that avoids the possibility of deadlock.
2. In the kitchen, the supervisor acts as a banker, only giving out resources if it won't
lead to a deadlock.
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7. Safe State:
1. A system is in a "safe state" if it can allocate resources in such a way that no deadlock
will occur.
2. In our kitchen analogy, a safe state is when chefs can complete their dishes without
being stuck.
8. Resource Allocaon Graph:
1. Another tool for deadlock avoidance is the Resource Allocaon Graph, which
visually represents the relaonships between processes and resources.
2. In the kitchen, this could be a diagram showing which chef is holding which
resource.
9. Checking for Deadlocks:
1. Periodically, the supervisor (or operang system) checks the system to see if it's in a
safe state or if a deadlock is imminent.
2. In the kitchen, the supervisor may observe if chefs are stuck with resources and can't
proceed.
10. Releasing Resources:
1. Chefs need to release resources once they nish using them to avoid deadlock.
2. Similarly, processes in a computer system should release resources when they are
done to maintain a safe state.
11. Orderly Resource Request:
1. Chefs must request resources in an orderly fashion to avoid circular wait.
2. In the computer system, processes are encouraged to request resources in a
predened order to minimize the risk of deadlock.
In essence, deadlock avoidance is like a trac management system in a bustling kitchen,
ensuring that chefs get the resources they need in an organized manner to avoid geng
stuck and unable to complete their tasks. By carefully managing resource allocaon, systems
can maintain a "safe state" and keep processes moving smoothly, prevenng the frustrang
and unproducve scenario of a deadlock.
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